The German Empire

Article by Marc Geddes. Edited by Claire Stratton. Additional Research by Liz Goodwin. 

Commonly, historians have labelled the German political system of 1871-1918 as ‘authoritarian’, ‘Bonapartist’, ‘undemocratic’ and ‘militaristic’. However, the extent to which these claims are justified have to be questioned rigorously, for their argument is based on a one-dimensional study of institutions. The argument of this essay focuses on the reciprocal and complex relationship between those who govern and those who are governed. Seen from a perspective which focuses ultimately on the demos of the German Empire, it would be inappropriate to label Imperial Germany as authoritarian and undemocratic. This essay attempts to offer a short introduction to the important debates within the field of the Kaiserreich, and thus will focus on the apparently powerless Reichstag; the perceived omnipotence of the Kaiser and his ministers; and, the political identity and culture of the German people. 

The Reichstag has often been depicted as powerless and restricted with regards to its influence and political scope in the German Empire. However, the parliament of the Empire was the national focus of all political life in Germany. The Reichstag could not initiate policy; take control of foreign policy; supervise the activities of the army; call elections; or take government ministers to account. Despite its limitations, parliament offered a vigorous challenge to Imperial Chancellors, such as Otto von Bismarck. Whilst it had no power to initiate policy, the Reichstag was well within its rights to challenge, amend or block policy. Chancellors had to work with precarious coalitions throughout the life span of the Empire. In addition, parliament controlled public transport, tariffs, utilities, social insurance and factory conditions among other things – essentially controlling the infrastructure of the Empire. Furthermore, parliament copiously voted down bills which it did not perceive as serving the German public interest, causing severe tensions between parliament and the Kaiser. 

For example, bills which fundamentally curtailed labour rights, such as the ‘Sedition Bill’ (increased prosecution rights for police), the ‘Little Socialist Law’ (association made under police discretion), the Penitentiary Bill (hard labour punishments for insulting the Kaiser), were voted down ‘paragraph by paragraph’, turning the Kaiser’s face from green, to red, to purple. Alas, the true weakness was the Reichstag’s sheer lack of power in foreign affairs and the military – where the elites of the nation vested their interests. 

Indeed, the Kaiser was central to the political system – he controlled ministries, appointments, the army and the bureaucracy in full. Accountability lay with the Kaiser, not the Reichstag. These concepts alone strongly favour the argument of authoritarian rule in the German Empire, demonstrating numerous institutional flaws of a democratic system. Furthermore, the actions of the Kaiser show that he disregarded democracy. For example, he created secret war ministries and circumvented the parliamentary budget to ensure that the military was sufficiently funded. The bureaucracy, a conservative body by anyone’s standards, followed the orders of the Kaiser directly and maintained political stability of the regime where possible. On the other hand, one could plausibly argue that the Kaiser, the military and the bureaucracy were undermined by the actions of Reichstag deputies. Lawsuits which were politically pertinent were immediately referred to Reichstag select committees – almost all of which favoured the German public, not the high elites. Informal rules were exploited lavishly by parliament, ensuring a fair and democratic process of government in almost every field except the military. 

The clearest weakness of the institutional argument is best witnessed on the ground, at the grassroots level of politics. Recent historiographical change has shifted the balance from looking at institutions and so-called ‘high politics’, to the very fabric of society and political culture from a view from below. In this way, the concept of democracy has fundamentally broadened its scope. Rather than comparing a utopian form of democracy we idealise even today with one from the nineteenth century, it would be more pertinent to look at the developments of democracy within Imperial Germany in and of itself. In this context, the German political system must be seen from a socio-psychological perspective in terms of demos. The civic body of a community is the essence of democracy – and such a body can be seen in the German Empire. The German people placed all their faith in democracy – by 1907, voter turnout reached eighty-five per cent. Contests between campaigners and candidates turned into comprehensive debates to win the hearts and minds of the German citizenry. The will of democracy existed abundantly among all German people – a rebellious nature to demand greater democratic rights did not, largely as a result of culture and not oppression. 

It is axiomatic that there is a great deal of scope for further discussion. For example, the influence of interest groups, entrenched political culture, deeper structure of the German bureaucracy or the influence of the government at elections has not been covered. However, the aim of this essay has been to offer a short introduction to different historiographical debates concerning the German Empire. There exist deep misconceptions about German history, which have been shown at an institutional level to a small extent, but largely as a result of recent shifts of interest from those who govern to those who are governed. The study of the people reveals much more of the nature of the political system and the way in which it was perceived by German culture than merely through institutions that cannot allow us to understand what it was like to be a German citizen within the Empire. 

Demos – the people that make up a community and identify with each other on a national, cultural and political level. Kaiserreich – the German Empire, 1871-1918. 

Reichstag – the elected lower chamber of the German parliament, equivalent to the House of Commons in Great Britain or the House of Representatives in the United States. 

Chancellor – the first minister of the Kaiser and presiding officer over parliament Otto von Bismarck – inaugural holder of the office of Chancellor who ruled for nineteen years. 

Kaiser – the Emperor of Imperial Germany. 

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